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Home > Department Style and Writing Guide : Effective Writing

Effective Writing

On this page:
What is distinctive about academic writing? Click here for a tip sheet on academic essay structure and format

Using evidence in your writing (including figures, maps, tables, and quotations)

  • What is evidence?
  • Deciding what evidence to use
  • Discussing your evidence in the text
  • Using figures: maps, graphs, diagrams, images
  • Direct quotations and paraphrasing

Citing sources
Making your own figures and tables – basic starting points
Tips for making revisions
Grammar and writing mechanics

What makes writing effective?

Effective writing clearly communicates ideas to the readers. This usually includes a well structured and engaging sequence of ideas, including use of evidence to support these ideas. Effective writing also includes addressing the appropriate audience, attributing credit to others through thorough citation, as well as a sense of the author’s own voice, and correct writing mechanics such as grammar and spelling. 

Using evidence in your writing

This section provides some basic guidelines to keep in mind for how to include evidence effectively within the context of your arguments and writing.

  • What is evidence?

    Evidence supports the main points that make up your argument.

    Types of evidence may vary widely, depending on the context, arguments, and audience of your writing. Different types of evidence frequently used in Geography include: data interpreted and represented visually in the form of maps, tables, or graphs – either existing or creating your own; direct quotations from existing texts, policies, or interviews; population data.

    Your instructor should give you a sense of the kinds of evidence appropriate to a specific writing assignment, within the context of a course or your Senior Project.

  • Deciding what evidence to use

    Ask yourself what kinds of information, facts, data, and perspectives from the literature might be useful for supporting your main ideas. What would make your idea persuasive? What kind of background is needed for your readers, and how can you provide this? In Geography, the kinds of evidence and way that it is used will vary quite a bit depending on context, so be sure you have a sense of the appropriate types of evidence for your assignment.

  • Discussing your evidence in the text.

    It is important to directly discuss in the text the evidence you include in your work. As you decide what evidence to include in your work, ask yourself:

    What is the main point that I want the reader to understand by looking at the figure or direct quotation I include? How does this relate to my argument?

    No matter what kind of evidence you are using, clearly spell out the connection between your argument and the evidence within the text. Do not leave it up the reader to discover this connection on their own.

  • Direct quotations and paraphrasing

    Using direct quotes
    Use direct quotations sparingly. Direct words from another author are special. Direct quotes should only be used when you cannot express the idea or information in your own words (see also Paraphrasing, below).

    Paraphrasing
    Paraphrasing always requires a citation. Even in your own words, the idea or presentation of information belongs to someone else. It can be tricky to explain an idea or information from another source in your own words.

    One technique to try is to read carefully through a section you are interested in explaining, presenting, or interpreting, and then to put this away (close the book, close that window on your computer) and try to explain it in your own words. If you still follow the phrasing or sequence of the author’s ideas too closely, leave it aside and return to it in a few hours. Then cite the source completely, including the page number.

  • Using figures: maps, graphs, diagrams, images

    “Figure” is a general term, usually including: maps, graphs, images.

    In a research paper where you might use several maps, a graph, and a photograph, these should all be labeled as figures, and numbered according to their order in the paper.

    For most essays and research papers, it is helpful to include graphics directly in the body of the text, but they also can be placed at the end of a paper. In either case, all visuals must be labeled and cited accurately.

See more about creating your own figures and tables below.
 
Use this general checklist for ALL figures, tables, and images (whether or not you created them):

  • All figures should have a caption or title, numbered appropriately (e.g. Figure 1).
  • If these are secondary materials (i.e., you have copied them without change from somewhere else), the original source must be given on both the figure and in the list of references. If you have prepared them yourself, they should be clear, and you should cite the source of the data you use, usually in the caption.
  • Maps should include at least these elements: scale, a legend, and a direction arrow (usually pointing North). If you are using an existing map, double check that these are all there.
  • Graphs should have the axes and units of measurement clearly labeled.
  • Tables should have titles for all the columns and rows, with units of measure labeled.
  • Images should be large enough and clear enough to make a striking visual effect, and the photographer or source of the photo should be properly cited in the caption.

    •  

Citing sources

  • Why cite? 
    Citing sources in your writing for assignments is often considered as an afterthought, and usually only in the context of plagiarism. Beyond the technicalities of citation (which are very important!), using sources responsibly allows readers to check the accuracy of your paraphrase, summary or quotation, and also to explore the sources you use in their own research. Perhaps most importantly, from the perspective of many scholars, accurate citation shows an awareness that you are engaged within a conversation of ideas – some of which may be yours, and many of which may already exist. By recognizing and respecting others’ work, your own contributions will be taken more seriously.
  • University of MN plagiarism policy
    All courses in the Geography Department follow the university’s policies on plagiarism and scholastic dishonesty. The University of Minnesota Student Conduct Code classifies scholastic dishonesty as a disciplinary offense actionable by the University. Scholastic Dishonesty is defined as:
    • “Submission of false records of academic achievement; cheating on assignments or examinations; plagiarizing; altering, forging, or misusing a University academic record; taking, acquiring, or using test materials without faculty permission; acting alone or in cooperation with another to falsify records or to obtain dishonestly grades, honors, awards, or professional endorsement.”

Plagiarism can take many forms, and is not limited to including direct quotations without citing them.
It can also include:

  • Leaving out documentation of a source altogether
  • Insufficiently documenting the words or ideas you are using
  • Closely paraphrasing the writing of another person without documentation of the source

Here is a helpful overview of citation practices, along with what they communicate to readers:

    • citation + quotation marks = the passage is someone else’s idea in that person’s exact words
    • citation + NO quotation marks = the passage is someone else’s idea expressed in your own words (i.e. a paraphrase or summary)
    • NO citation + NO quotation marks = the passage is your own idea expressed in your own words
  • Referencing visual information
    See the above sections on Maps, Tables, and Figures for some examples of how to reference visual information (including captions).
  • Geography Department style standards
    Unless your instructor indicates otherwise, use the following style guidelines from the Annals of the Association of American Geographers (from the Chicago Manual of Style).
  • Our department adapted Annals Style Sheet (DOC)
  • Parts of this section adapted from: University of Minnesota, Writing Center. Also, Swarthmore College Writing Center, “Citation, Paraphrasing, and Avoiding Plagiarism”, accessed March 10, 2010.

Making your own figures and tables – some starting points

You might be thinking to yourself, “Geographers make maps, right? So I should probably have one or two in my paper?”

Not necessarily. Depending on the assignment and course, figures may be required, or it may be up to you to decide whether including any kind of figure (map, table, graph, diagram, or image) will effectively enhance your argument or main point.

Some geography and GIS courses focus entirely on making and using visual information. These courses will have specific and detailed assignments to guide you, as well as specific requirements about what you produce. The following guidelines are most likely NOT adequate for courses in GIS, cartography, or other course on spatial analysis and representation.

This section provides you with some general starting points about making your own figures and tables.
If in doubt, be sure to ask your instructors whether these are adequate for your assignment or project.

MAPS

To ask “what is a good map?” is to ask how well it communicates with its audience. – Kenneth E. Foote and Shannon Crum, 1995

Geographer Ken Foote has outlined some helpful questions to ask yourself when considering to include or make a map (see the link at the end of this section). These can be helpful to think about evidence more generally, as above:

  • What is the motive, intent, or goal of the map?
    This question focuses on what the reader should gain from the map or how the reader should respond. Is the map intended to convey information about spatial relationships? Is the map intended to sway or be involved in public opinion? The goal of the map will influence both the content and form of the map.
  • Who will read the map?
    How much does your audience know about the subject of the map? How much background does your audience have in reading maps? Both of these aspects of audience should be considered in the way that you make a map, and in the way that you interpret and explain a map in the text.
  • Where will the map be used?
    Context is important for how maps are understood by the reader.
  • What data is available for the composition of the map?
    This might influence how a map is made because data may be incomplete or hard to communicate. Does the data need to be qualified? Do limitations need to be spelled out for the reader? Consider the potential limitations or inconsistencies in the data from the start of your project.
  • What resources are available in terms of both time and equipment?
    How much time should you invest in this project, and do you have the equipment, software, and skills that you need to complete the project with enough time to do your best work?

Elements common to virtually all maps:

Distance or Scale: Usually using a bar or line, this shows some equivalence between the map and the space it portrays. Distance and scale can be shown in verbal, numeric, or graphic form:

1 inch equals 1 mile

1: 63,500

Direction: Most maps show north as being toward the top of the paper, but this is not always the case. Additionally, true north (the direction to the North Pole) differs from magnetic north (the magnetic north pole moves due to changing geophysical conditions of the earth’s crust and core). Depending on the subject matter, these distinctions may be important.

Legend: This lists symbols used on a map and what they depict. The symbols should appear exactly as they are found in the body of the map, and have clear and complete descriptions.
Not all maps require legends – sometimes this information could be put in a caption, or added as textual annotations directly on the body of the map.

Sources of information and how processed: Always provide sources of data for maps you produce. The reader should be able, if interested, to track down sources. If the data was processed, grouped, generalized, or categorized in particular ways, this should be provided. Sources for information can be listed within the caption.

Elements that are sensitive to context:

Title: If your map is appearing within a publication such as a book, journal, or paper, captions usually take the place of a title. If your map is appearing on its own, a title is necessary and important in how the map is understood.

Projection: This influences how maps represent area, distance, direction and shape. It should be noted when this is of importance to how the map will be interpreted. Some widely used locational reference systems such as the U.S. State Plane Coordinate system and Universal Transverse Mercator system are based on predefined projective geometries that are implicit in the use of the coordinate systems themselves.

Cartographer: The authority lying behind the composition of a map can be of prime importance in some situations. Most maps note the name, initials, or corporate identity of the cartographer(s).

Date of production: Some maps are sensitive to time, and it may be important for the reader to know when they were produced. This can be indicated as roughly as year, or as specifically as date and time to the second. Gauge how to handle this depending on what you are trying to convey to readers and the content of the map.

Inset maps: Sometimes it’s helpful to provide a “zoomed out” view of the area covered by a map. For example, if you portray an area of several blocks within a neighborhood, it may be helpful to show how this neighborhood is situated within a larger city or metropolitan area.

Map example:
Description: Map 1

In this example, the author has provided a small inset map showing the context of the main large map. In the caption for the map, the author provides a description of what the map shows (the study area from the “regional perspective”, discussed further in the paper). The author also explains why a key boundary is left out of the map, also indicating the author has constructed the map herself.

Source:
Goldman, Mara. 2009. Constructing Connectivity: Conservation Corridors and Conservation Politics in East African Rangelands. Annals of the American Association of Geographers. 99(2):335-359.

TABLES

Like maps, tables communicate information. A table can be very efficient at presenting quantitative data. Tables should always be interpreted clearly for the reader – in the caption description and also discussed in the text in relation to your observations and arguments.

Keep these basic guidelines in mind when putting together a table:

  • Tables are made up of columns and rows of information.
  •  Headings for columns and rows should be descriptive and always include the units of measurement.
  • If the table is meant to stand alone, give the table a title that concisely summarizes the contents.
  • If the table is meant to be read along with text (for example, as part of a paper or report), do not give the table a title, and instead number the table relative to other tables in your paper, and provide a caption with the following elements:
    • descriptive summary of key point(s)
    • proper citation for all data used, if not data collected by you

 

Table example:

Description: Table example with source

The above table looks complicated, but follows the guidelines above. The left column lists rivers studied and includes details about each in parentheses and brackets. The rest of the columns list flood flows data about those rivers, with units of measure shown. The source of the data is provided below the table, along with several other relevant notes.

Source:
Fuller, Ian. 2007. Geomorphic Work during a “150-Year” Storm: Contrasting Behaviors of River Channels in a New Zealand Catchment. Annals of the American Association of Geographers. 97(4):665-676.

Tips for making revisions

Leave your writing alone for at least 24 hours!
Reread your paper with a critical eye.
Did I fulfill the assignment?
Did I say what I intended to say, as concisely and precisely as I can?
What are the strengths of my paper?
What are the weaknesses of my paper?
REVISIT #3: Have you fulfilled the terms of the original assignment?